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Albert I of Monaco: Nineteenth century ruler of Monaco, patron of prehistory and paleoanthropology, and founder of the Anthropological Museum of Monaco and the Institut de Paleontologie Humaine in Paris.
Andrews, Roy Chapman: Leader of the Central Asiatic Expedition to the Gobi Desert to find traces of early humans, who wrote the engaging and influential books on the Trail of Ancient Man and Meet Your Ancestors.>/P>
Arambourg, Camille: Modern French paleontologist, successor to Marcellin Boule at the Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle, whose studies began dismantling Boule's apish reconstruction of Neandertals.
Arensburg, Baruch: Modern Israeli anatomist, one of the directors of the excavations at Kebara and coauthor of the description of the Kebara Neandertal skeleton, which includes a hyoid bone and a nearly complete pelvis.
Bar-Yosef, Ofer: Modern Israeli archeologist, one of the co-directors of the excavations at Kebara and defender of the idea that anatomically modern humans preceded Neandertals in the Levant.
Black, Davidson: Canadian physician who later studied under Grafton Elliot Smith; generally considered responsible for finding, recognizing, and naming Sinanthropus pekinensis, now known as Homo erectus, at Zhoukoudian.
Blanc, Alberto Carlo: Italian paleoanthropologist who described the Neandertal cranium from the Grotta Guattari at Monte Circeo and developed a theory that Neandertals had religious beliefs.
Bordes, Francois: French geologist and archeologist who proposed the standard, typological system for identifying and classifying Lower and Middle Paleolithic tools and tool assemblages, based on the European sequence.
Boucher de Crevecoeur de Perthes, Jacques: Onetime playwright anal favorite of Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte who described early stone tools from Abbeville, France, and was fooled by modern human remains that were planted in association with genuine stone tools at Moulin Quignon.
Boule, Marcellin: Predominant human paleontologist in France in the early twentieth century, director of the Institut de Paleontologie Humaine, professor at the Museum d'Histoire Naturelle, and author of the classic monograph on the "Old Man" from La Chapelle-aux-Saints that painted Neandertals as apish, brutish, and shuffling.
Bouyssonic, Amedee and Jean (Abbes): French brothers and priests who excavated the Neandertal skeleton at La Chapelle-aux-Saints and turned it over to Marcellin Boule for analysis.
Brace, C. Loring IV: Iconoclastic physical anthropologist whose critical review resurrected the fate of the Neandertals as a major issue in anthropology in the early 1960S.
Brsiuer, Gunter: Modern German physical anthropologist who developed the "out of Africa" hypothesis, arguing that the earliest modern humans developed from archaic humans in Africa and migrated outward.
Broca, Paul: Nineteenth-century French surgeon, founder of the Ecole d'Anthropologie, and a specialist in the exacting measurement of modern and human fossils.
Brose, David: American archeologist who, with Milford Wolpoff, wrote a seminal paper in 1971 pointing out that different tool types were not soundly linked to different types of hominids.
Buckland, William (the Reverend): Oxford professor of geology who popularized the notion of the Biblical Flood as the most recent of a series of global catastrophes. He studied some of the earliest-known human fossils in England and trained Charles Lyell and Roderick Murchison.
Busk, George: English zoologist involved with the Moulin Quignon remains and with the Gibraltar Neandertal, who collaborated with Hugh Falconer in naming Homo calpicus.
Cann, Rebecca: American biochemist whose Ph.D. thesis focused on the implications of evolution in mitochondrial DNA for the origin of modern races; a major proponent of the current Eve hypothesis, with her colleagues Mark Stoneking and the late Allan Wilson.
Cave, A. J. E.: English anatomist from St. Bartholomew's Hospital Medical College in London who worked with William Straus, Jr., to show that Neandertals were more modern anatomically than Boule's work had suggested.
Collignon, Rene: Alsatian anatomist who proposed that the tibial plateau must be perpendicular to the ground for erect, striding gait, a suggestion that was the basis of the false assertion that Neandertals shuffled along with bent knees.
Coon, Carleton: American physical anthropologist, expert on race and racial differences who proposed that the human races had been separate since Homo erectus and had evolved toward Homo sapiens in parallel. Coon was castigated as a racist in the early 1960S for his modified version of Franz Weidenreich's theory.
Crelin, Edmund: Modern gross anatomist at Yale Medical School and expert in the anatomy of the newborn who, with Phillip Lieberman, reconstructed the vocal tract of Neandertals based on the La Chapelle-auxSaints skull and concluded that Neandertals lacked true language.
Cuvier, Georges: Gifted comparative anatomist, premiere mammalian paleontologist at the Museum d'Histoire Naturelle in Paris in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, and foremost proponent of catastrophism.
Dart, Raymond A.: Australian anatomist working in South Africa who discovered Australopithecus africanus, the controversial Taung baby, then the earliest-known hominid.
Darwin, Charles Robert: Author of The Origin of Species, generally considered the father of modern evolutionary theory.
Dawson, Charles: English solicitor and enthusiastic amateur prehistorian who discovered the forged Piltdown remains in 19II.
Dibble, Harold: Professor of Anthropology at the University of Pennsylvania. He is re-investigating the historically-rich sites of Fontechevade, La Quina, Pech de l’Aze and Combe-Cappelle.
de Mortillet, Gabriel: Revolutionary nineteenth-century anthropologist who joined Broca's Ecole d'Anthropologie, proposed massive social reforms, and revised Edouard Lartet's classification scheme by incorporating archeological materials.
de Puydt, Marcel: Belgian lawyer and amateur archeologist who, with Max Lohest, discovered the Neandertal skeletons at Spy d'Orneau, in 1886.
Dobzhansky, Theodosius: Fruit-fly geneticist, architect of the new evolutionary synthesis, and severe critic of Carleton Coon's Origin of Races.
Dubois, Marie Eugene Francois Thomas ("Eugene"): Dutch anatomist and physician who discovered Pithecanthropus erectus (now known as Homo erectus) in Java. Dubois insisted Pithecanthropus was a human ancestor in the face of bitter criticism, and pioneered the study of brain-to-body-size ratios.
Dupont, Edouard: Belgian geologist who discovered a fossil Neandertal jaw in the Trou de la Naulette in 1865.
Elliot Smith, Grafton: Australian anatomist and brain expert at the University of Manchester, teacher of Davidson Black and Raymond Dart, and major figure in the debate over the forged Piltdown fossils.
Evans, John: London anatomist who showed that the Moulin Quignon jaw was modern.
Falconer, Hugh: British paleontologist involved in uncovering the Moulin Quignon hoax and in excavations in Gibraltar for Neandertals, which he named Homo calpicus (with George Busk).
Fraipont, Charles: Son of Julien Fraipont and author of a 1936 monograph on the Neandertal child's cranium from Engis.
Fraipont, Julien: Anatomist at the University of Liege who described the Neandertal skeletons from Spy and suggested they had a bent-kneed, shuffling gait.
Frere, John: First to recognize and publish on worked stone tools from England in 1797
Fuhlrott, Johann Karl: Schoolteacher from Elberfeld, Germany, to whom the
original Neandertal bones were given and who recognized them as belonging to ancient humans.
Garrod, Dorothy: Archeologist, Fellow at Newnham College and later the first woman professor at Cambridge, and leader of the British School of Archaeology's excavations at Mount Carmel when the fossil human remains were found.
Gaudry, Albert: Professor of paleontology at the Museum Nationale d'Histoire Naturelle, mentor of Marcellin Boule.
Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, Etienne: Professor of vertebrate zoology at the Museum Nationale d'Histoire Naturelle, and strong supporter of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck's ideas on evolution.
Gorjanovic-Kramberger, Karl: Croatian paleontologist who discovered and described the Krapina Neandertal fossils at the turn of the century.
Haeckel, Ernst: German anatomist, natural philosopher, chief defender of Darwin in Germany, and bitter adversary of his former professor Rudolf Virchow. Haeckel coined the name Pithecanthropus alalHs for the hypothetical missing link between apes and humans.
Hauser, Otto: Swiss-German antiquities dealer detested by the French for his discovery of the complete Neandertal skeleton in a burial at Le Moustier; also the discoverer of the Cro-Magnon, or anatomically modern, skeleton at Combe Capelle.
Heim, Jcan-Louis: Physical anthropologist at the Musee de l'Homme who recently reassembled the La Chapelle-aux-Saints cranium and who also described the Neandertal skeletons from La Ferrassie.
Henslow, John Stevens: Professor of botany at Cambridge and friend of Charles Darwin.
Heys, Matthew H.: English schoolmaster who removed and described the Galley Hill skeleton.
Hinton, Martin Alistair Campbell: Volunteer at the British Museum (Natural History) in the early twentieth century, often cited as a suspect in the Piltdown forgery.
Hooton, Earnest Albert: First American professor of physical anthropology (at Harvard), teacher of many of the subsequent generation of physical anthropologists, and a witty and acerbic commentator on human evolution.
Howell, F. Clark: Influential American anthropologist who, starting in 19s1, used the new understanding of evolutionary processes to explain Neandertal morphology in terms of genetic isolation and adaptation to a glacial regime.
Howells, William W.: Former student of E. A. Hooton's, twentieth-century pioneer in measurement and statistical analysis of skulls, and author of the influential Mankind in the Making.
Hrdlicka, Ales: Bohemian-born physician and physical anthropologist who conducted many massive anthropometric studies, stoutly challenged the evidence for early fossil humans in the Americas, criticized the forged
Piltdown fossils, and defended Neandertals as ancestors of modern humans.
Hublin, Jean-Jacques: French anthropologist who recently demonstrated that pre-Neandertal European fossils showed Neandertal-like features, thus supporting the continuity hypothesis and demolishing thc prc-Sapiens scheme.
Huxley, Julian: Thomas Henry Huxley's grandson, one of the best-known biologists in wartime Britain, first secretary-general of UNESCO, and author of Evolution: The Modern Synthesis, a widely read book on the new evolutionary synthesis.
Huxley, Thomas Henry: Brilliant comparative anatomist and paleontologist, known as Darwin's "bulldog" for his spirited defensc of the theory of evolution.
Keith, Arthur: Scottish anatomist, one of the foremost authorities on fossil humans in early-twentieth-century Britain. An avid proponent of the pre-Sapiens hypothesis that excluded Neandertals and Homo erectus from any direct role in human ancestry, Keith was prominent in the debates over Eoanthropus da7wpsoni, the Piltdown fossil.
King, William: Professor of anatomy at Queen's College, in Ireland, who proposed the name Homo neanderthalensis in 1864.
Klaatsch, Hermann: German anthropologist who initially rejected Darwinism and human evolution, but later, with Otto Hauser, named the Combe Capelle skeleton Homo aurignacensis and proposed it as the ancestor of only the Caucasian race.
Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste: Former botanist and professor of invertebrate zoology at the Museum Nationale d'Histoire Naturelle late in the eighteenth century, who proposed a theory of evolution (transformism) prior to Darwin's.
Lartet, Edouard: French solicitor and great prehistorian who, working with Henry Christy, discovered many important Upper Paleolithic sites and proposed a sequence of ages, during which humans had lived, based on the associated animals.
Lartet, Louis: Edouard Lartet's son, a geologist who discovered the Cro-Magnon site that yielded archeological remains and five or more human skeletons that had been deliberately buried.
Leakey, Louis: Son of English missionaries in East Africa trained in anthropology at Cambridge, who shared Arthur Keith's strong belief in the pre-Sapiens theory and who, with his wife Mary, found many important hominid fossils much older than Neandertals in Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania.
Le Gros Clark, Wilfrid E.: Prominent British anatomist of the mid-twentieth century and professor at Oxford, who reversed the rejection of Raymond Dart's Taung baby as a hominid and collaborated with Joseph Weiner and Kenneth Oakley to expose the Piltdown forgery.
Leroi-Gourhan, Arlette: Modern French palynologist whose studies of pollen showed that one of the Shanidar Neandertal burials included wildflowers.
Leveque, Franc,ois: Modern conservator of archeological excavations for the Poitou-Charente region, and coauthor, with Bernard Vandermeersch, of the first reports on the Neandertal from Saint-Cesaire, which was associated with Upper Paleolithic tools.
Lieberman, Phillip: Speech analyst at Brown University who, with Edmund Crelin, recently proposed that Neandertals lacked true language, relying on evidence from a flawed reconstruction of the Neandertal vocal tract.
Linnaeus, Carl: Seventeenth-century Swedish scientist who devised the systematic classification of organisms according to their physical likenesses.
Lohest, Marie Joseph Maximin ("Max"): Belgian geologist who, with Marcel de Puydt, found the Neandertal skeletons at Spy d'Orneau in 1886 and described them with Julien Fraipont.
Lubbock, John: Neighbor of Charles and Emma Darwin, influential banker, foremost British archeologist of the age, and author in 186S of Pre-Historic Times, a book that set out the sequence of archeological ages in Europe.
Lycll, Charles: Prominent English geologist, great friend of Charles Darwin, and promulgator of uniformitarianism, the premise that the currently observable geologic processes (not catastrophes) acting over vast amounts of time were responsible for modern geologic features.
MacCurdy, George Grant: American archeologist, director of the American School for Prehistoric Research in Palestine who was involved with the discovery and excavation of human fossils at Mount Carmel.
MacEncry, John (Father): Irish clergyman who, in 18Z5, found fossil human remains associated with flaked flint tools, and extinct fossil animals in Kent's Cavern, England.
Manouvrier, Leonce-Pierre: Professor of physical anthropology at the Ecole d'Anthropologie at the turn of the century, director of the Laboratory of Anthropology at the Ecole des Hautes Etudes, and assistant director of the physiological research station of the College de France; a preeminent anthropometrician.
Marston, Alvin: English dentist who found the Swanscombe skull in Kent in 1935 and who seriously questioned the association of the various Piltdown fossils.
Maska, Karel: Schoolteacher turned prehistorian who discovered the Neandertal mandible at Sipka, and one of the founding fathers of central European Paleolithic archeology.
Mayr, Ernst: Bird taxonomist and highly influential evolutionary theorist. Mayr helped bring together natural history and genetic theory to form the new evolutionary synthesis in the mid-twentieth century.
McCown, Theodore D.: American anthropologist who, as a young man, supervised the digging at Skhul and wrote up the Mount Carmel skeletons with Arthur Keith, pointing out the mixture of modern and Neandertal features.
Mendel, Gregor: Austrian monk generally credited with discovering the laws of genetic inheritance through his breeding of peas.
Mellars, Paul: Professor of Prehistory and Human Evolution at the University of Cambridge.
Miller, Gerrit, Jr.: Paleontologist at the American Museum of Natural History who correctly maintained that the Piltdown skull was a chimera comprised of an ape jaw and a human cranium.
Montagu, M. F. Ashley: Anthropologist who disparaged Carleton Coon's book, Origin of Races, at length in the 1960s.
Murchison, Roderick Impey: Important geologist of the nineteenth century, leader in many English scientific societies, and opponent of uniformitarianism. His work led to the organization of the earth's history into a standard succession of epochs and eras, with progressively more complex organisms.
Musgrave, Jonathan: Modern English anatomist who used multivariate statistics to compare the hand anatomy of Neandertals and modern humans.
Neander, Joachim: Name used by Joachim Neumann, seventeenth-century vicar and composer, for his musical works; the Neander Tal (Neander Valley) was named after him.
Neumann, Joachim: See Neander.
Neuville, Rene: French archeologist and consul in Jerusalem in the 1930S, who first excavated Jebel Qafzeh and found anatomically modern but ancient human remains.
Oakley, Kenneth: Chemist and paleontologist at the British Museum (Natural History) whose application of relative fluorine dating revealed that the Piltdown remains were a forgery.
Osborn, Henry Fairfield: Paleontologist at the American Museum of Natural History who believed that Asia was the birthplace of modern humans and helped sponsor the Central Asiatic Expedition to the Gobi Desert, hoping to find early human fossils.
Osterman, Stjepan: University of Zagreb student, assistant to Karl GorjanovicKramberger, and sometime supervisor of excavations at Krapina.
Owen, Richard: Prominent nineteenth-century biologist and archenemy of Thomas Henry Huxley.
Patte, Etienne: Paleontologist at the University of Poitiers, whose meticulous 1955 review of the evidence suggested Marcellin Boule's reconstruction of Neandertals as apish and primitive was incorrect
Pei, Wenzhong: Well-known Chinese paleoanthropologist and director of the Cenozoic Research Laboratory. As field director of excavations at Zhoukoudian, Pei found the first skull of Sinanthropus pekinensis (now called Homo erectus) in 1929.
Pengelly, William: Successor to John MacEnery in collecting fossils and stone tools from Kent's Cavern in England.
Peyrony, Denis: Prehistorian who excavated the Neandertal burials at La Ferrassie.
Piveteau, Jean: Modern French paleontologist at the Sorbonne, and former student of Marcellin Boule.
Prestwich, Joseph: Nineteenth-century English geologist who was asked to help determine whether the Moulin Quignon finds were authentic.
Putnam, Carleton: Author of Race and Reason: A Yankee views, widely perceived as racist; this work provoked accusations that Carleton Coon had collaborated with him and was also racist.
Pycraft, William Plane: Assistant to Arthur Smith Woodward at the British Museum (Natural History) at the time of Piltdown. An expert on birds, Pycraft wrote in 1928 a monograph on the Broken Hill fossils, which he called Cyphanthropus rhodesiensis.
Rak, Yoel: Modern Israeli physical anthropologist and coauthor of the description of the Neandertal skeleton from Kebara that includes a hyoid bone and a nearly complete pelvis.
Rosenberg, Karen: Modern American paleoanthropologist who countered Erik Trinkaus's prolonged-gestation hypothesis by arguing that Neandertal's large birth canal simply reflected the robust, large-headed build of the mothers.
Schaaffhausen, Hermann: Professor of anatomy at the University of Bonn who, with Johann Fuhlrott, described the original Feldhofer Neandertal.
Schmerling, Phillipe-Charles: Belgian doctor and anatomist who, in the 1830S, excavated and described fossil human remains (including Neandertals) from the Belgian caves of Engis and Engihoul.
Schwalbe, Gustav: German anatomist, vehement supporter of Darwinism, founder of Die Zeitschrift fur Morphologie end Anthropologie (Journal of Morphology and Anthropology), and known for his unilineal hypothesis that Eugene Dubois's Pithecanthropus and Neandertals (Homo primigenius) evolved directly into modern humans.
Sergi, Sergio: Father of modern human paleontology in Italy who studied the Saccopastore Neandertal remains and proposed a pre-Neandertal theory of human evolution. Sergi collaborated with Alberto Blanc, comparing the damage on the Monte Circeo Neandertal cranium to that produced by Melanesian headhunters.
Simpson, George Gaylord: Renowned American paleontologist and one of the prime architects of the new evolutionary synthesis who showed how the fossil record could be interpreted in terms of natural selection and evolutionary trends.
Smith, Fred: Modern American physical anthropologist, former student of Milford Wolpoff, analyst of the Neandertal remains from Vindija and Krapina, and a proponent of the hypothesis that Neandertals evolved into modern humans.
Solecki, Ralph: American archeologist who excavated several intact and partial Neandertal skeletons at Shanidar, Iraq, and in the 1970S developed a theory that Neandertals had religious beliefs.
Sollas, William: Prominent English geologist at Oxford in the early twentieth century who was much involved in the Piltdown discussions.
Spencer, Frank: Modern physical anthropologist and historian of science, author of a comprehensive assessment of Ales Hrdlicka's work and a cogent review of the Piltdown incident.
Stewart, T. Dale: Modern physical anthropologist at the Smithsonian Institute who analyzed most of the Shanidar Neandertal remains and subsequently turned them over to Erik Trinkaus for further study.
Straus, William, Jr.: Anthropologist and anatomist at Johns Hopkins University whose work with A. J. E. Cave revealed numerous inaccuracies in Boule's reconstruction of La Chapelle-aux-Saints; he was thus responsible for helping to "humanize" Neandertals.
Stringer, Christopher: English physical anthropologist who is among the staunchest current advocates of the replacement hypothesis, believing that anatomically modern humans arose in Africa and spread outward, replacing Ncandertals.
Tattersall, Ian: Curator of Anthropology at the American Museum of Natural History. He argues that there were three or more branches on the human family tree a million and a half years or so ago.
Teilhard de Chardin, Pierre (Pere): Frcnch Jesuit priest and paleontologist who was involved with finding the canine of thc Piltdown skull; he later became an adviser to the Geological Survey of China and was involved with the Zhoukoudian Homo erectus fossils, originally known as SinanthropHs pekinensis.
Thorne, Alan: Modern Australian paleoanthropologist who, with Milford Wolpoff, formulated and defended the multiregionalism (or regional continuity) hypothesis.
Tillier, Anne-Marie: Modern French paleoanthropologist, trained by Bernard Vandermeersch, who studied and compared the juvenile material of Neandertals and early modern humans in order to understand their development.
Topinard, Paul: Former student of Paul Broca, his successor at the Ecolc d'Anthropologie, and an analyst of Neandertals.
Trinkaus, Erik: American author of a monograph on the Shanidar remains and coauthor of In Search of Neanderthals. Trinkaus emphasizes the importance of deducing behavior from the fossil record.
Twiesselmann, Francois: Belgian medical doctor and current physical anthropologist at the Institut royal des Sciences naturelles de Belgique (the Belgian Royal Institute of Natural Sciences), and one of the first to apply statistical analyses to the study of fossil humans.
Vallois, Henri: Professor at the Institut de Paleontologie Humaine, director of the Musee de l'Homme, and former student of Marcellin Boule who continued to defend the pre-Sapiens theory after Boule's death.
Vandermeersch, Bernard: Modern French paleoanthropologist who reexcavated Jebel Qafzeh and described the anatomically modern human skeletons found there, and coauthor, with Franc,ois Leveque, of the paper announc ing the "last Neandertal" found at Saint Ccsaire associated with Chatelperronian tools.
Virchow, Rudolf: Gennan physician, teacher. father of modern pathology, and foremost German physical anthropologist in the last half of the nineteenth century. Virchow was deeply opposed to the idea of human evolution and largely responsible for the rejection of Neandertal remains as pathological.
von Koenigswald, G. H. R.: German-Dutch paleontologist who worked in Java with W. F. F. Oppenoorth and discovered the Homo erectus fossil humans at Sangiran.
Wallace, Alfred Russel: Self-taught natural historian who independently developed the ideas of survival of the fittest and natural selection, which are more usually identified with Darwin.
Washburn, Sherwood L.: Prominent American physical anthropologist, former student of E. A. Hooton's, and architect in the 1950S of the "New Physical Anthropology," which was based on detailed treatment of functional anatomical units. Washburn accused Carleton Coon of being racist in the early 1960S.
Weidenreich, Franz: German Jewish anatomist, successor to Davidson Black in Beijing, who wrote the monograph on the Zhoukoudian Homo erectus (then, Sinanthropus pekinensis) remains, and created the regional continuity hypothesis.
Weiner, Joseph: South African anthropologist, trained by Raymond Dart, who worked with Kenneth Oakley and Wilfrid E. Le Gros Clark to show that the Piltdown remains were deliberately forged.
Wilberforce, Samuel (Archbishop): Huxley's antagonist and unsuccesssful leader of the attack on Darwinism at the British Association meeting in Oxford in 1860.
Wilson, Allan: American biochemist who, with Vincent Sarich, pioneered the use of biochemical techniques to measure evolutionary distances and rates. He was a major advocate of the Eve hypothesis, and a proponent of the idea that the evolutionary distinction between Neandertals and modern humans was that only the latter had articulate speech.
Woodward, Arthur Smith: Keeper of Geology at the British Musuem (Natural History) and fish expert who, with Charles Dawson, described the forged Piltdown remains.
Wolpoff, Milford: Modern American physical anthropologist who, with Alan Thorne, updated the multiregionalism hypothesis, which states that different regional groups of Homo erectus evolved locally into the different living races of mankind.
Zilhão, João: Professor of Prehistoric Archaeology at the University of Lisbon. He discovered a controversial new skeleton of a Neandertal child that may be a hybrid in the Lapedo Valley in December 1998.