Standards provide a means to carry out the mission and goals of an organization. The mission of the school library media program is to create a foundation of learning. Information literacy, the ability to find and use information, is the keystone for lifelong learning. Today's student lives and learns in a world of infinite amounts of information encountered through a multitude of formats. To thrive productively in the Information Age, the student must become a skillful consumer and producer of information using a range of sources, tools, and formats. The central concern of student-centered library media programs is to assist all students in becoming active and creative locators, evaluators, and users of information to solve problems and to satisfy their own curiosity.

Information Literacy Standards, developed by the American Association of School Librarians (AASL) and Association of Educational and Computer Technology (AECT), provide a conceptual framework and broad guidelines for describing the information literate student. The school library media specialist (LMS) uses these standards to guide the development of instruction for the library programs that support lifelong learning. However, to develop instruction to promote an information literate student, the LMS must understand the information seeking behaviors of the student and how they locate and use the information encountered through the different information retrieval formats.

Exploring the link between standards implementation and information seeking behavior, the paper examines the findings from Identifying and Categorizing Information Seeking Strategies in the Networked Environment: An Exploratory Study, conducted by the researchers in the summer of 1999. Through examining the findings from the study, the paper investigates how the LMS can employ the seeking strategies of young adults using networked environments to develop instruction for information literacy programs and proposals for how these experiences can feed back into the revision of literacy standards.

Information Seeking Behavior Study

According to the standards, information literacy programs should prepare young people to access information in a range of formats and through various technologies. Educators teach various information-seeking strategies to help users acquire information. The Internet, with its graphical browsers and variety of search tools, creates new challenges in developing appropriate information-seeking skills curriculum for information literacy programs. Understanding the existing behaviors young adults utilize in their information-seeking process can guide the development of instruction and contribute to an understanding of how GenNet, the “networked generation,” adapts to and utilizes the network environment to resolve an information problem.

As young adults continue to gravitate towards the World Wide Web (the Web) as a primary source to resolve their information problems or for other purposes, research is needed to identify and describe the types of information-seeking behaviors exhibited by these users. Data from such research would provide a basis for categorizing effective patterns, strategies, and tactics related to different information needs. The current research discussed here is an exploratory and descriptive study that uses a qualitative approach to identify, describe, and categorize information-seeking behaviors of young adults as they use a networked environment.

Research Questions

Information seekers possess unique mental models, experiences, abilities and preferences that they use to develop their own processes for defining tasks, controlling interaction with an information system, examining and extracting relevant information, assessing the progress, and determining when the information-seeking process is complete. As the information seeker continues to develop these processes through solving information problems, they reinforce and extend their mental models for the various factors and subprocesses associated with information seeking (Marchionini, 1995). This study explores the range and variety of information-seeking behaviors of young adults by examining their unique abilities to locate information.

To deepen our understanding of young adults’ use of networked resources by exploring their networked information–seeking behaviors, the study addresses two specific research questions:

• What are the networked information–seeking behaviors of young adults?
• How can effective networked information–seeking behaviors be categorized to assist their use in appropriate situations of information need?

Methodology

This exploratory research employs qualitative techniques including a questionnaire, verbal think-aloud protocols, observation, and interviews. Users’ abilities to navigate the Web to locate information controlled the selection of study participants. To achieve maximum variance in the information–seeking behaviors, the study requires each participant to be knowledgeable in Web technologies and services, including navigation and search techniques. Additionally, each participant must possess the basic information literacy skills necessary to gain access to information available with print and electronic media. Because a user makes judgments about what information is useful to them at the time of need, the study requires the participants to possess skills in being active, experienced and critical users of information. This requirement allows the researchers to examine the participants’ various behaviors while seeking information rather than giving emphasis specifically to the level of experience (novice, proficient, etc.) the members of the group may possess.

Twenty-one young adults attending a local area summer school program completed a preliminary questionnaire designed to collect data pertaining to their comfort level and abilities in using networked environments—specifically the Web—to locate information, and their knowledge of information literacy skills. The questionnaire also provided insight into information–seeking interests of these young adults. This information assisted in the customization of topics for the tasks performed by the participants.

Based on their level of knowledge and experience, all twenty-one students were potential study participants. Twelve students agreed to participate in the study.

Information Seeking Instrument Development

The researchers prepared four sets of scenarios each containing information problems to solve. Participants utilize information–seeking behaviors to locate information to resolve the information problems. The scenarios require participants to complete tasks of varying levels of complexity and allow them to indicate an evolution of their seeking process. The different scenarios, reflecting different classes of information need, encourage participants to perform a variety of seeking behaviors they commonly or uncommonly use while trying to acquire information from the Web. The following is an example scenario:

You are working as a summer intern for Texas' local sports radio station, “The Ticket”. Your assignment for today requires you to research baseball players' statistical information for tomorrow’s game between the Texas Rangers and the New York Yankees. During inning changes, the announcers usually converse about various players and how they performed in seasons past. Your task is to find a listing of the opposing baseball players’ statistics.

The scenarios lay out the complexity of the task, which is essential in engaging the participant’s desire to utilize their various information-seeking behaviors for the researcher to examine. The tasks are set up on the basis of the type of information needed by the user to solve their problem. The task includes an articulation, usually stated as a question, and the mental and physical behaviors of interacting with search systems and reflecting on outcomes. As information seekers define the information problem, they identify constructs and terminology to create their seeking process. These constructs and terminology vary in number and in degree of abstractness, and these variations determine the complexity of the task (Marchionini 1995, p. 36). The task then drives the information-seeking actions, which allows for the expansion of their behavioral process to resolve the information problem. Taylor (1991, p. 230) compiled eight classes of information use generated by the needs perceived by users in particular situations. Due to the exploratory nature of the study and time constraints with administering this type of methodology (each task takes approximately 15-30 minutes to perform), the study only utilizes four classes of information need as behavioral enhancements. The following four classes informed the contents of the scenarios the participants used to stimulate various information–seeking behaviors:

• Instrumental: The need to find out what to do and/or how to do something.
  Example Task: Find a recipe on how to make oatmeal raisin nut cookies and a image to show what your cookies should look like after you bake them.
• Factual: The need for and consequent provision of precise data.
  Example Task: When did Nolan Ryan pitch his first no-hitter game?
• Confirmational: The need to verify a piece of information.
  Example Task: Herbert Hoover was the 25th President of the United States of America.
• Motivational: The need to find additional information based on personal involvement with a task.
  Example Task: Now that you have found the answer to the question about Nolan Ryan’s first no–hitter, what other things about his career did you find interesting.

Data Collection and Analysis

As the participants perform their tasks, they engage in talk-aloud verbal protocols to describe and explain their behaviors as they advance through their information seeking. Participants verbalize their steps while seeking information specific to the task. To capture all the data provided through the talk-aloud protocol process, researchers record sessions in audio and video. Upon completion of the online session, participants proceed to an interview session where they have an opportunity to clarify any actions taken to locate information. The interview also allows the researcher to uncover additional information and participant’s reasoning and explanation for the information–seeking behavior utilized.

Transcription of the data from the audio and videotapes is complete. The study is currently in the analysis stage. Data analysis consists of categorizing various seeking behaviors utilized by the participants while completing their tasks. The researchers use Marchionini’s processes of locating information as a basis for initial categorization of the participants’ information–seeking behaviors (Marchionini 1995, pp. 72-74):

• Patterns: Behaviors that can be discerned over time and across different information problems and searches.
• Strategies: Sets of ordered tactics consciously selected, applied, and monitored to solve an information problem. Strategies can be general and flexible (browse strategies) or highly specialized and well-defined (analytical strategies). Strategies are the approach that an information seeker takes to a problem.
• Tactics: Discrete intellectual choices or prompts manifested as behavioral actions during an information-seeking session.
• Moves: Finely grained actions manifested as discrete behavioral actions.

Marchionini asserts that searchers possess substantial knowledge related to the factors of information seeking which causes them to develop distinct patterns of searching and to use a variety of strategies, tactics, and moves. The researchers are categorizing the information from the transcribed data according to these various processes performed by the participants. Since this is an exploratory study, the researchers are also examining the data for the emergence of new categories as well as operationalizing further the Marchionini classes.

Through categorizing the information behaviors, the researchers are creating descriptions of the various seeking processes participants use to obtain the answer to their information need and formulate how they can be used in learning about the information seeking process.

Preliminary Findings

This paper reports from the preliminary stages of analysis of the questionnaires and transcripts. Preliminary data allows the researchers to begin the process of categorizing participants' behaviors and making inferences in developing curriculum for information literacy instruction. As stipulated in the methodology section, all participants were knowledgeable in Web use. The length of their Internet usage ranged from as little as one year to five, typical for a group of participants with a mean age of 15 years. The questionnaire asked the students how they would define their abilities to locate information on the Web, as an expert, an experienced, a beginner, or a non-user. The researchers defined abilities as follows:

• Expert: "I know all the tricks and can find what I am looking for in a matter of minutes."
• Experienced: "I am pretty good at finding what I need, but I can always use help."
• Beginner: "I know how to log on and can enter a URL into the address box."
• Non Web User: "I do not use the World Wide Web."

One participant classified herself as an expert, while two others felt they were at a beginner level. Nine checked themselves off as experienced. After reviewing the transcripts, most of the participants would indeed be classified as experienced users. The questionnaire asked participants to describe a skilled seeker of information on the Web. Participants characterized skilled seekers as educated, experienced, efficient, intuitive, and they know about computers. Skilled seekers possess the ability to easily use a search engine to locate information and know differences between a home and web pages. According to one participant "they spend all their time on the Internet" and another called them "Internet freaks", while a third thought "they know what they are looking for, know where to look for it, and can handle technical problems." In the exit interview, participants again were asked the same questions on characterizing a proficient Internet seeker. The participants added that proficient seekers possess the ability to find different links on the same subject and know different words to use in searching. They are "smart, patient, and can think quickly where to go." As the majority of the participants classified themselves as experienced searchers, none of them felt they held these qualities. The participants usually found a place to begin, but they need assistance in developing techniques to optimize their time completing a task.

In beginning their task, the participants chose either an official Web site of a company or organization they believed would provide them with the data needed, or they used a search tool that would provide them with links to sites and information. For example, Participant 12 starts out with the official Star Wars Web site (www.starwars.com) to find the answer to a scenario with a factual question asking who played Darth Vador in Return of the Jedi, while Participant 1 uses Yahoo (www.yahoo.com). Each used links to locate the answer and found the actor's name on different Web pages. In the use of search tools, the majority of the participants use Yahoo, Altavista, Askjeeves and Lycos. Other tools used were AOL, Dogpile, Excite, Hotbot, MSN and Netscape. Exploring the implications for the reason in their choice of search tool used (Table 1) will be an import issue for the researchers to consider when discussing with educators best practices to teach students when they choose a resource to use for locating information on the Web.

All participants showed possession of moves, tactics, and strategies they use to navigate through the scenarios given. Many of the navigational moves used by the participants to help manipulate their seeking included:

• Scroll: Using the scroll bar to look over the page.
• Return: Going back to a previously viewed page.
• Frame: Switching from frames to view or seek for information.
• Type Address: Typing a specific address in the URL box.
• Use of Arrow: Using arrow (mouse) to scan over information or check for hyperlinks.
• Use of Keyboard: Using keyboard to make selections or manipulate page.

• Review Material: Links to page and reviews material on screen to see if it is information needed.
• Modify Query: Modifies query by changing or adding terminology in the search box.
• Switch Resource: Switches to another type of resource.

• Locating Resources: Tries to locate resources that will help solve the information problem.
• Choosing Resources: Selecting the resource (search tools, official homepages, web pages) to use to begin the information seeking process.
• Choosing Predetermined Resource: Selecting a resource to use from a list given by a search tool or Web site.
• Keyword Searching-initial: Using the keyword searching technique in the search query starting with broad or simple terms.
• Keyword Searching- subsequent: Enters more specific keywords to narrow the search
• Subject Tree Searching: Seeking information using a subject tree technique in formulating terminology for the search query.
• Natural Language Searching: Uses natural language (forms thoughts into questions) searching to locate information.
• Verifying Information: Checking to make sure the information given is correct or that the participant understands the meaning of the task.
• Decision: Making a choice or selection regarding the information given.

These behaviors create certain patterns across the particular scenarios completed by a particular participant (Factual Question à Motivational Question or Instrumental Questionà Confirmational Question). For example, Participant 4 uses an online assistance program called Yahoo Pager, a program that allows a user to talk with others online and ask for assistance with research questions, to aid in completing both the Instrumental and Confirmational scenarios regardless of their complexity. Participant 9 tries to locate specific sites that she thinks might contain the type of information required to answer the question. For one of the factual questions she tries to start with Mapquest, a site containing geographical information, to locate the distance between two cities. She locates the Kelly Blue Book site through searching on Yahoo for information on car prices to answer one of the motivational questions. The participants state that their specific types of practices have become routine when using the Web to locate information.

Patterns also developed among the participants themselves (Participants completing a specific scenario--Participants 1, 7 & 12 completing Motivational Question 1). In the Motivational scenario where the participants are asked to locate activities to use when watching young children, all participants tried to use a specific site geared toward young children like the Disney site or www.family.com. They also select or deny activities geared towards their own personal interests. Participant 1 chooses to make splatter shirts because she thinks “it’s fun,” while Participant 12 rejects an outside activity because “it is boring”. Currently, the researchers continue to look for patterns between the participants as well as other cognitive behaviors among the data.

As the level of difficulty in the task increased, the number of behaviors exhibited by the participant in finding the answer increased. This influx of data allowed the researchers to see a variance of information seeking behaviors among the participants. Interestingly, it was not always the higher class of information that produced the richest amounts of behaviors as suggested by Taylor (1991), it was situational to the participants cognitive understanding of the task and their ability to use their different seeking behaviors to find the answers. The examination of these cognitive processes used by the participants to gain access to information perpetuates researchers' understanding of the information seeking behaviors of this GenNet environment. Understanding the process used to complete a task and these young adults ability to retrieve information assists in the development of curriculum needed to strengthen information literacy in using networked environment as well as allowing the transfer of these skills to other mediums used in information retrieval.

So where are these young adults learning their information seeking skills? When asked this question in the exit interview, participants replied that they learn from experience. "I stumble on things as I am playing," says one participant. Many said they learn from family members, friends and classmates. A few participants said they talk about sites in class, but they felt they did not learn in class, even though they are expected to know how to use the Internet to complete class assignments. Some teachers instruct them on "specific skills" to use and one participant said they learned how to search on the online databases in the library. Participants rely on the front screen to show how to conduct a query, but they do not utilize the help screen to find out the best use of the search tool.

Curriculum Development for Information Literacy Programs

The preliminary data results from the study show that students posses moves, tactics, strategies and patterns they use to locate information on the Web. While some of these behaviors are concurrent with behaviors used to find information using other information retrieval formats, other behaviors are new to information seeking known to educators and can be used to teach information literacy skills transferable to a variety of seeking environments. The different moves can be taught to create a more efficient search. For example, using the keyboard at times allowed for a faster seeking session than using the mouse to scroll down a Web page. Strategies like the choice to use a search tool that allowed the formulation of a question within the search query reinforced the idea that young people prefer natural language searching to assist them in locating information. Knowing student’ desire to locate information through the use of natural language, the LMS can develop instructional materials which help students learn best how to create queries that support the type of searching they feel most comfortable with as well as help the students learn how to develop the best question to use in order to gain the optimal amount of data to help retrieve the information needed.

The Web has become the desired method of locating information among the GenNet environment. Their ease of use with this electronic environment allows for a comfort level to try new ways of finding information. However, their lack of skills in formulating processes to locate information can create frustration and animosity toward their desired retrieval environment, especially when specific strategies, tactics, or moves known by the information seeker do not produce the results needed to locate the answer. Instruction of information literacy skills is necessary to assist in the development of the student’s ability to learn how to locate desired information. By creating programs that enhance the abilities students possess in being able to best obtain answers, the school library media program supports the teaching of skills that will help students grow into lifelong learners of information as required by the Information Literacy Standards. In order to create effective programs, instruction needs to take place where the students’ abilities are their strongest. By using an environment they are familiar with, like the World Wide Web, students can enhance the skills in using network environments and transfer those skills into learning how to gain access to information using other methods of information retrieval.

Curriculum Development for Standards Revision

Literacy standards provide the support the LMS needs to help create the best program for their particular school environment. The LMS can use these standards to guide the development of curriculum based on the information seeking behaviors their students possess as well as create instruction for other behaviors that will enhance the seeking capabilities necessary to become information literate students for lifelong learning. As students become proficient in the desired set of standards, revisions can take place that will aid in the development of alternative standards, which again assists students in becoming more effective locaters and users of information.

References

Marchionini, G. (1995). Information seeking in electronic environments. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, NY.

Taylor, R. S. (1991). Information use environments. In B. Dervin and M.J Voight (Eds.), Progress in Communication Sciences, vol. 10. Norwood, NJ: Ablex